we may be far apart
but our hearts beat as one
♥ ♥ ♥ ♥ ♥

navigations on the hearts

This is My Life;mY World

Your name< Zacquelin Tricia >
school< GYSS >
cca< librari >
birthday< 110893 >
loves< God >



dislikes< forgives and forgets >
wants< to spread christ >
< to excel in my studies>
< to grow more for God>
like me stay
don like me juz get lost
tis is my blog i say wad i wan
don spam my tagboard..thx u

today

a day out wif CIET

hehex..

went to suntec walk walk

then to plaza sing tot pierce ear..in the end nvr hahaz

arcade awhile

eileen went off first

then carina and iris

left me alone so took bus to suntec
and change to 133

a long ride
tot abt lots of things
frm the past to nw..

wad have i been doing in 15 years of my life?
playing..
nt studying
haiiz..

did nt eat dinner no appetite

i believe God has set everything for me..
i wont make empty promises
i will study juz give me time and momentum to adapt to studies
so God help me

wad is love?
confessing?
i don noe
loving someone is hard
loving God is nt..
God show miracles plz
help me

Labels: NATURE..FEELINGS..MIRACLES..FIND UR WAY PLZ..

i blogged @ 7:07 AM

siiannnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn

came bak frm bangkok and hmm..damn siiannn

gonna start studying soon

and yea hopefully i will have the momentum..

after coming bak things have change..

love is nth
love is everything
wad is love?
sweetest drug


i blogged @ 1:01 AM

yipeee i am hm

had great fun there

hahaz.....

love tyhe food

and i spend 300 dollar hahaz

the hotel damn nice la..

hahaz

haizi actually nth to blog


tats all bahh bye

i blogged @ 4:56 AM

i am flying in another 1hr..whohoo..
anything sms my fone..
if u don noe which fone,
sms both hahaz..

if important i will repply

byeeee...hahaz

i blogged @ 2:54 PM

tmr i will be going off le yea..

see u guys after i cme bak..
will miss u all de..
ciet

i blogged @ 7:08 AM

yeaaaaaaaaaaaaa

headstarted started
hmm mole concept..
gonna start studyin


sun will be leaving sg

and today went to watched HIGH SCHOOL MUSICAL..
it rox..seriously

hahaz

whoohoo

i blogged @ 8:10 AM

whooohooo

hahaz..

i got promoted..nt advance..is promoted wahahahaahhaz...............................

teacher don need to push me up..so yea..

Thx God..

haiiz..bt CIET..have one retain..anyway..jyjy..appeal or jyjy next year..u cn do it..
we are still tgt..

anyway

i am damn happy

bt i will be serious and stay focus le..
so i will be always at hm

i blogged @ 12:17 AM

haiiz

gave sch a miss
woke at 10am
bath
change headed dwn to woodlands
and went to read bks in library
then went to find wayne
then went find isaac
then went to amk

argghh
tmr is see whether i promoted or nt
diee
GOD i trust in u..plz bless me
GOD show miracles plz..


BIG news
isaac don noe hw to read pre sch chinese even though he is 19 years old..omgoshh

i blogged @ 4:37 AM

hmm..
today wasnt a bad day
slept through first 5 period
hmm..okok i gotta say smt later..
smt happen in sch don wanna mention
anyway ate wif carina,iris,eileen and sam at amk jubilee..then popular..bus hm..

i want to apologise to IRIS first
this suppose to be my problem bt eneded up u got taiji too..sry..and sry for the quarrelings..hmm..CIET FOREVER kkz..

i want to apologise to RICK next
i am sry for like suspecting that one is u, i still don noe who is it, definitely it is nt me.
erm..Lina tat thing, i am sry abt last time, bt this time it is nt me definitely.

sorry to whoever that were drag down to this..hope tat the person who blast this situation will own up soon.......


SPECIAL MESSAGE TO CIET
NO MATTER WHAT WILL HAPPEN ON THURSDAY, TAKE IT AS A LESSON FOR NT WORKING HARD AND WE WILL WORK TGT FOR THE UPCOMING O LVL..IF WE NVR RETAIN..SO GOD BLESS US PLZ........NO MATTER WAT WE WILL ALWAYS BE TGT..CIET JYJYJYJY..

Labels: SRYY

i blogged @ 7:31 AM

haiiz

i nt ard juz one day
nvr touch my com one day

i got spammers in my blog..mygoshh laz...
get a life..

don u noe tat spamming ppl blog is so outdated..
wth!

seriously
i nvr use ur name to tag my own blog..i am nt ard..and i don noe who did it..
if it is nt u..i don noe who..bt kkz i believe it is nt u..i nvr say anything rite..

anyway i think i noe who..bt haiiz i let the matter rest bahh..
i don wan to be involve in this stupid things..

becoz taggin my blog is nt myself..is someone..tagging their blog is another someone...it may or may nt be the same person who tag my blog and their blog..

seriously, i don wan care..cant u juz let matter rest..i nvr say anything le rite..
and if my friend de friend de zui u..oso nt my prob..becoz is nt i de zui u cn liiao..
anyway my friend de friend oso nvr say anything le..

juz end here stop it la..cn..

anyway tat person..if u gt read my blog..dare do dare own up..don wait till i find out is u..

i blogged @ 8:33 PM

6.41pm..juz reach hm..hahaz...
ytd woke up went to aunt hse and stay till today
ate dinenr wif grandparents
then went hm get rice frm mum..
ate that rice for supper..
siian..
ytd cousin play maple..
did nt get to use the com..

hahaz..
anyway went orchard tis morning..then to library borrowed some books...
then went bak to aunt place..read the books and went dinner
and nw hm..
tats all bahh hahaz..

i blogged @ 3:41 AM

today
gave sch a miss
then woke up at 10am
played audi wif carina
after tat went bath and and went to rest

after tat went watch movie wif iris and carina
watch butterfly lover
boring show
then took bus 159 to sengkang collect t shirt walk ard hahaz

iris and me change into the shirt immediately hahaz
quite nice..may wan to buy somemore
then bus bak to tpy
carina went down first
then i went down
then iris hahaz

fun going out wif them hahaz

hmm
juz wanna scold a bastard..if u ever read tis blog u will noe who..of cuz is nt one of my friends..is someone i don noe
HEY U BLOODY HELL BASTARD..BUS SO CROWDED DON NOE HW SIT PROPERLY AND TAKE AWAY UR THINGS ARR..STILL ACT SLPING IDIOT..FUCKER SIIA..
I GLARE AT U U OSO DON WAN MOVE..NB..
i did smt very funny
i diao him diao him then i talk damn loud hahaz..then he finally move hahaz..
AND U BLOODY BASTARD I SAY U, U NT HAPPY AR..KIP STARING AT ME..IN THE END OSO LPPL..HAHAZ..


i blogged @ 7:34 AM

today is such a roller coaster day

cried again haiiz

siian siia

haiiz

God u got to show miracles plz..

haiizz


i got no mood to post

i blogged @ 9:29 AM

gave sch a miss..

nw 12am le..wondering whether to give sch a miss tmr mah..

don really wan face reality..

cried today cried badly

haiiz..

only carina noe why

thx carina..u r a great friend..

fail maths
science
el
dnt
humans
pass
chinese
poa..

Lord i place my hopes abt u hoping u don let me retain..

i blogged @ 9:06 AM

i fail dnt..
forget it..

theory fail it is expected...

haiiz..nvmmm

i blogged @ 7:49 AM

join one forum wif ppl saying i am wadsoever..

really i think i should nt even join or log in anymore..
seriously if ppl don believe jiu sua lor..

wonder why they like tat de..

first time join forum..heard frm someone it is fun..i don think so it is fun lor..
don noe wad to do,ask ppl..they say i wad..

seriously nw they wan add me in friendster,then find my blog...

waa..why don buy chocolates or sweets frm me at my blog shop so like to come my blog and if they can find my blog, why don find my chocolates blogshop..and buy from me..

seriously i nit reconsider whther to join the forum..

today in sch was damn slack bt super nervous

el paper 1-28/60
maths paper 2-46/100
chinese overall-52.75/100
poa overall-51/100
dnt journal-39/70

very good improvement compare to the rest of my marks during mid year..

i have my plans for holiday le..
swimming, playing, running
sentosa, oversea, study grp, child care
AND OF CUZ MY PERSONAL STUDY TIME
3hrs a day..

God thx for everything
plz continue to bless me and help me to obtain at least pass for all subjects..
Thx for showing me miracles..
i don wanna worry i have faith in God so i leave all in his hand..

i blogged @ 3:07 AM

i have my blogshop up wif very little things hahaz..

hmm..

exams are over
time for fun bt of cuz can't play too much
need to prepare for o lvl

will be out of sg
on the 26-29 if i nt wrong hahaz..

and i did some reflection]
i need to learn to apply wad i learn in church

last sunday
it is HOLINESS TO THE LORD..
It is annouce obedience to a holy reponsibility of a holy person during a holy event for their holy GOD.
Holiness is all areas of life
including mundane,routine and daily activities

in conclusion
Every action reflects holiness to GOD.

hmm..
faith is not faith without action..
have i have faith?
i don noe..
attending church only when i feel like..
is nt really having faith haiiz..
i will try
bt always sunday i will go de..hahaz..

anyway my plans for my year end is
at least spend 2hrs a day on studying
working
holidays
outings

i will see abt it bahhz..

i blogged @ 7:28 PM

today morning woke up at 7

slack ard then bath and went to eileen hse hahaz

slack there 1hr

headed to jurong point by 157

actually wan go west mall bt we pass by it without noticing

shop at jurong point hahaz

found that their toilet all sensor de hahaz..

then ate chicken rice at food court

hahaz..

walk ard took mrt bak to tpy

went bball court

they nt ard then went bak to tpy centre

then went to amk

then kbox awhile

went eat and hm

i blogged @ 8:24 AM

whoohoo

FINISH EXAM LE

the scary part is coming up le

it is my result

haiiz

i trust God..

anyway tmr will be heading to jurong hahaz..

oso don noe wad to do there..

anyway don noe wad to write so tats all bah

i blogged @ 9:24 AM

last paper tmr..whoohooo..

if i fail i am sry mr fiz..becoz i really very tired le..tahan liiaoz...

hmm..

tmr will be bak hm change and go out play le

hmm..
bio was ok
poa was hmm die?

hahaz..

i blogged @ 7:52 AM

today was a total total stupid day

chem i think sure die liao

God ii have faith in u..
plz give me strength..
I entrust u for tmr paper
tat u will give me good memories for wadever i studied..

when to eat wif eileen after paper and walk ard then went hm..
on com and revise my bio from 12-7..7hrs ..see my previous post..i type wad i memories..
later i will revise my POA
and my last chapter of bio..

God help me give me strenghth and wisdom

i blogged @ 5:46 AM

chapter 2 to 9(chapter 8 till page 113)

cells
each living cell consist of living material called protoplasm,
protoplasm is a jelly like substance

protoplasm contain many other substance
-proteins
-carbohydrates
-fats

protoplasm consist of three part
-cell surface membrane
-cytoplasm
-nucleus

cell surface membrane(plasma membrane)
-surrounds the cytoplasm of the cell
-partially permeable membrane
-only allow some substances to pass through
-controls substances entering or leaving the cell

cytoplasm
-between the cell surface membrane and nucleus
-most cell activities occur
-contains enzyme
-specialised structure called organelles
-organelle carry out various functions in the cells
-can only be seen under electron microscope
-can exist in sol or liquid state or in gel or semi-solid state
-other region are usually in the gel state, while the inner region usually in the sol state.

nucleus
-consist of a small round mass of denser protoplasm called nucleoplasm,surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear envelope.
-contains one or more nucleoi and chromatin
-control cell activities such as cell growth and the repair of worn-out parts
-essential for cell division

cell wall
-surrounding the cell surface membrane
-made of cellulose
-protects the cell from injury and gives the plant cell a fixed shape
-fully permeable
-absents in animal cells

nucleus contains?
-chromatin
=a network of long thread like structures found within the nucleus.
=controls the activities of the cell,such as cell division
=each thread is made up of protein and a compound called DNA.\
=when cell is diving, the chromatin threads condense and become highly coiled structures called chromosomes
=under microscope, chromosomes appear as thick rod structure.

Parts of cytoplasm
-mitochondria
-ribosomes
-chloroplasts(only in plant cell)
-cell vacuoles

mitochondria
-small saugage shaped organelles
-aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria

Aerobic respiration
-food substances are oxidised to release energy
-energy maybe used by cell to perform cell activities such as growth and reproduction

ribosome
-small round structures
-either attached to a certain membrane or lie freely in the cytoplasm
-needed to synthesize proteins in cell.

chloroplast
-oval structures only found in plant cells
-contain a green pigment called chlorophyll
=chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis , the process by which plants make food

vacuoles
-fluid filled space enclosed by a membrane
-store substances within the cell

animal cell
-have many small vacuoles that contain water and food substances
-usually exist temporarily

plant cell
-have a large vacuole contains a liquid called cell sap
-large vacuole is enclosed by a membrane called the tonoplast.

cell sap
-contains dissolved substances
such as sugar,mineral salts and amino acids

How is cell structure related to cell function
1.red blood cell
-contains a red pigment called haemoglobin
-no nucleus enabling it to carry more haemoglobin and have more oxygen
-has a circular biconcave shape
-increases the surface area to volume ratio of the cell
-oxygen can diffuse into and out of the entire cell at a faster rate

2. xylem vessel
-long hallow tubes formed of xylem call laid end to end
-conduct water and mineral salts from roots up to the stem and leaves
-do not have cross wall or protoplasm,enables water to move easily through the central space or lumen
-lignin strengthens the walls and prevents the vessels from collapsing

3.root hair cell
-long and narrow
-increases the surface area to volume ratio of the cell
-water and mineral salts can be efficiently absorbed from the cell

simple tissues in animals
-epithelial tissue or epithelium is a sheet of cells which covers both the internal and external surfaces of the body
-muscle tissue is a collection of muscle cells which helps your body to move by contracting

simple tissues in plants
-epidermis are tissue that cover the leaves and stems

complex tissue in animals
-tissue found inside an organ or between organs is called the connective tissue
opther tissue in animals
-nervous tissue
-glandular tissue
-bone tissue

complex tissue in plants
-vascular tissure
xylem<------->phloem
Tissues

tissue combine to form organs
stomach is made up of four different kind of tissues
=glandular tissue-secretes digestive juice to digest food
=muscular tissue-cause stomach to contract and mix food with digestive juice
=connective tissue-connect the others tissue together
=nervous tissue-coodinates the action of the stomach

organs in plants
a leaf is an organ for photosynthesis
contains
-palisade tissue,spongy mesophyll tissue
other plant organ includes
-roots
-stems
-flowers.
______________________end of chapter 2_________________________

movements of substances
Concentration gradient is related to Diffusion
The particle of fluids passes movement (kinetic energy)
As their movement is random,the particles will move(diffuse) down the concentration gradient.
The steeper the concentration gradient, the faster the particles will moves.

Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region where there are a region of higher concentration to a region where there are of lower concentration, that is,down a concentration gradient.

a permeable membrane allows substances to pass through it.

The cell surface membrane is not like the membrane.

Cell surface membrane allows some substances through but not the others eg,oxygen and carbin dioxide,not proteins.
Diffusion is an important way by which oxygen and carbon dioxide move into and out of cells. Proteins enter in another way.

Amoeba gets the oxygen it needs by diffusion.
Dissolved oxygen from water diffuses throught the cell surface membrane.Carbon dioxide also diffuse out of the cell surfaces membrane into the water.

Plant cells such as root hair cells also take in oxygen and remove carbon dioxide through diffusion.

Humans
carbon dioxide from red blood cells diffuses out.
oxygen from the air diffuses in.

Plants
carbon dioxide diffuses out of the root hair cell
Oxygen diffuses into the root hair cell.

Osmosis
Water from a less concentrated to a more concentrated solution across a partially permeable membrane is a process called osomosis.

Water potential is always used in connection wit osomosis.
-is a measure of the tendency of water move from o ne place to another.
concentrated solution has a lower water potential.

When a partially permeable membrane separates two solutions of different water potential, a water potential gradient is established.

Water always moves from a solution with higher water potential to a solution with a lower one, down a water potential gradient.

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a solution of higher water potential to a solution of lower water potential, through a partially permeable membrane.

How does osomosis affect organisms?
The cell wall of plants is permeable and allows most dissolved substances to pass throught.
A plant cell behaves differently from an animal cell when placed in different water potential.

In plant cell (osomosis)
1.The solutions outside the cell has a higher water potential than that of the cell sap.
2.Water enter through the partially permeable membrane. The vacuole increases in size and pushes the cell against the cell contents against the cell wall.
3.The cell wall is strong and relatively inelastic.Prevents over expansion by exerting an opposing pressure as water enters the cell.This prevents the entry of more water.
4.When a cell expand it become more swollen and turgid. This turgidity of the cell with water is called turgor. This pressure exerted on the cell wall is called turgor pressure.
The partially permeable membrane is nt the cell wall but the cell membrane.

Animal cell(osomosis)
it will swell and burst as it does nt have a cell wall to enclosed(highwater potential)
cytoplasm has lower water potential than outside solution thus water enters by osmosis.

What happen to a cell in a solution with low water potential?
1.The cell sap has higher water potential than outside solution.
2.Water will leave the cell by osmosis.
3.The cytoplasm shrinks away from the cell wall.The cell decreases in size.It becomes plasmolysed.
The skrinkage of cytoplasm and cell membrane away from the cell wall is known as plasmolysis.
The cell is said to by plasmolysed.

Animal cell
Placing an animal cell in a solution of low water potential will also cause it to lose water.
The cell shrinks and little spike appear on the cell surface membrane.
This process is called crenation.
The cell eventually die if place in a solution with low water potential.

Why is turgor important in plants?
-Turgor supports soft tissues in plants.
-It keep stems erect and the leaves widely spread out.
-If the cells lose too much water through evaporation,they lose their turgidity and the plants wilt.
-Changes in the turgor of the guard cells causes the opening and closing of stomata.

Plasmoysis
-causes tissues to become limp or flaccid
0cells will be killed if they remain plasmolysed for too long.

Surface area to volume ratio
-cells move material(nutrients,waste) across their cell membranes to stay alive.
-if the cell cannot move material fast enough, they will die
-how fast the material move depend on the ratio of surface area to volome.
The greater the area of cell surface membrane per unit volume, the faster the rate of diffusion of a substance for a given concentration gradient.
________________________end of chapter 3________________________

nutrients
Why do we need food?
-is a source of energy and raw material for organisms
-to provide energy forn vital activities of the body
-to synthesise new protoplasm for cell growth and repair of worn-out parts of the body
-to stay healthy

Food provide energy for vital activities
-all living organisms require energy to stay alive
-need energy to keep their hearts beating
-to contract their muscles for movement
-photosynthesis,green plants use light energy from the sun to convert raw materials from the surroundings into food such as carbohydrates.
=such food substances contain a store energy called chemical energy
Animals have to consume green plants in order to get stored energy.

Food provides raw materials to make new protoplasm
-the body of a living organism undergoes wear and tear
-a living organism is able to grow and reproduce and and repair its worn out part.
Organisms make new protoplasm from a certain substances found in food.

What are nutrients?
Nutrients are chemical substances in food that provides energy and material needed by the body.Food also contains vitamin and mineral salts.Vitamin and mineral salts help to keep organism healthy.

Energy and materials presents in nutrients are sued for
-vital activities to keep the body alive
call growth , repair of worn-out parts of the body and cell division.

Water
70% of the body weight is water

Functions of water
-solvents for many substances
-is a medium or substance in which chemical reactions occur in organism.
-helps to transport dissolved substance around the body such as
=digested products from the small intestine to other parts of the body
=waste products from the tissue cells to organs such as
kidneys for removal from the body
=hormones from glands to parts of the body which require them.

Water is the key component of
-protoplasm
-lubricants found in joints
-digestive juices
-bloods
-tissue fluid

In animal,water has this functions
-it is needed for certain reactions such as hydrolysis in digestion
-it helps to control the body temperature.Water is the component of sweat.sweat aveporates form the skin surface,heat is removed.

In flowering plants
-essential for photosynthesis
-needed to keep plant cells turgid or firm
-needed to transport mineral salts up the xylem from roots to the leaves.
-needed to transport food substances from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

Carbohydrates
-organic compounds made up of the elments or components carbon,hydrogen and oxygen.
The hydrogen present in the ratio of 2:1.

Three main groups of carbohydrates
-monosaccharides(glucose,fructose,galactose)
-disaccharides(maltose,factose,sucrose)
-polysaccharides(starch,glycogen,cellulose)

Functions of carbohydrates
-as a substrate for respiration,to provide energy for cell activities
-to be converted into other organic components such as amino acids and fats
-to form supporting structures,cellulose cell wall in plant
-for the formation of nucleic acids,DNA.
-to synthesise lubricants,mucus-consist of a carbohydrates and a protein
-to synthe sise the nectar in some flowers.

sugars
-when dissolved in water, they will lower its water potential
-sugars are osmotically active

Two types of sugar
-monosaccharides
-disaccharides

single sugar and their occurence
glucose-found in animals
fructose-common in plants but rare in animals
galactose-present in milk sugar from mammals.

double sugar
maltose-occurs in sprouting grains
-consists of two glucose molecules bonded together
sucrose-formed from a glucose and a fructose molecule combined together.
-not found in mammals
lactose-formed from a glucose and a galactose molecule combined together
-milk of all mammals including humans.

Condensation reaction is a chemical reaction in which.two simple molecules are joined together to form a larger molecule with the removal of one molecule of water.

A double sugar can be split into two simple sugar molecules bu using an organic molecule called enzymes.
Eg. when a solution of maltose is mixed with the enzymes maltase, glucose molecules are produced.

Hydrolysis or a hydrolytic reaction is a reaction in which a water molecule is needed to break up a complex molecule into smaller molecules.

Reducing sugars
-glucose
-maltose
-fructose
-lactose

different concentration of reducing sugar produce different colour when boiled with benedict solution

colour change and amt of reducing sugar
-blue to green mixture-traces of reducing sugar
-blue to yellow or orange-moderate amt of reducing sugar
-blue to brick red or orange red precipitate-large amt of reducing sugar.

complex carbohydrates
-which is called polysaccharides
-consists of many monosaccharides molecules joined together
-starch
-glycogen
-cellulose
=made up of numerous glucose molecules condensed together

Glycogen and starch are stores of glucose
-plants store glucose in terms of starch
-Animals can't store or make starchin the bodies
Get most of our carbohydrates from plants in the for, of starch
-animals main store of glucose is glycogen
Glycogen mainly stored in the liver and muscles.

Glycogenand starch are suitable as storage materials because
-insoluble,do not change water potential in the cell
-large molecules which cannot diffuse through the cell
-can easily hydrolysed to glucose when needed
-molecules,compact shape,occupy less space than all the individual glucose molecules that make up a glycogen or starch molecule.

hydrolsis of starch
starch in the food we eat hydrolysed in out guts
when starch is hydrolysed,bonds within the polysaccharide are broken down and glucose is realeased.

reducing sugar is produced when starch in hydrolysed
starch------>a sugar maltose------>glucose
amylase maltase

fats
made up of carbon hydrogen and oxygen
commonly used as a store energy,normally for animals

Fats can be broken down into fatty acid and glycogen
fat molecule+3 water molecule--------------->glycogen +3 fatty accid molecule
catalysed
Tristearin+3 water------------->glycogen+3stearic acid
Lipase
saturated fats are mainly found in animals.

A fatty substance called cholestrol is usually found together with polysaturated fats,in dairy product.

Too much saturated fats and cholestrol in the diet may cause coronary heart disease.
Gall stones-made up mostly of cholestrol

Unsaturated fats-reduce the cholestrol level in the blood
-It should be replace in animal fats in the diet as often as possible.

Test for fats-emulsion test-using ethanol.

Function of fats
-a source and store of energy
-an insulating material prevents excessive heat loss
-a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins and many many other substances such as hormones
-an essential part of protoplasm
-a way to reduce water loss

Proteins
-make up of carbon,hydrogen,oxygem and nitrogen
-always present in protoplasm
-molecules are the largest and most complicated of all food substances
-sulphur maybe present too

amino acid are the building block of proteins
-every protein molecule is built up from simpler compounds known as amino acids
Amino acid-NH2-CH-COOH

Two amino acids link up in a condensation reaction
The bond formed between the two amino acids is strong and called peptide bonds
Many amino acids linked up by peptide bonds form a polypeptide or peptone.

Long chains of amino acids fold to give proteins a 3-D shape
-Polypeptides in turn may be linked up to form even longer chains of amino acids

In protein
-chains are coiled or folded
=giving the protein a more complex 3D shape
-coils are held in place by weak bonds which are easily broken by heat and chemicals
=acids and alkalis
-when the binds are broken,the protein loses its 3D shape,this is call denaturation
Thus, Protein is denatured.

Proteins must be broken down in the body
-Animals can't absorb proteins directly
=proteins molecules are too large to pass through living cell surface
-Protein molecules are broken down through digestion by enzymes

Digestion is a series of hydrolytic reactions
-proteins are first hydrolysed into short polypeptides(or peptone),which are in turn hydrolysed into amino acids.

Amino acids
-simpler and much smaller molecules than proteins
-soluble in water and are small enough to diffuse through living membrane.
-enters the body cells,linked up to form the protein needed by animals

Function of proteins
-constants activities withi the cells cause the old protoplasm to wear out
-New protoplasm must be produced to replace it.
-new protoplasm must also be synthesised for growth
-proteins are essential for the synthesis of protoplasm
-in the synthesis of enzymes and some hormones in the formation of antibodies to combat diseases.

Proteins give a violet colour with biuret solution.

__________________________end of chapter 4_______________________

Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalyst

What are catalysts?
-a substance which can alter or speed up a chemical reaction,without itself being chemically changed at the end of the reaction

What are enzymes?
-Biological catalyst made of proteins. They alter the rate of chemical reactions without themselves being chemically changed at the end of the reactions.

Enzymes catalysed chemical reactions in living cell
They are made of proteins.

High temperature or change in PH
-Break bonds within the protein molecules and cause proteins to change in shape(denaturation)

What reaction do enzymes catalysed?
Digestion is an enzymes catalyse process
-some food molecules are too large and insoluble in water
-these molecules cannot diffuse through the cell surface membrane.
therefore the cannot be absorbed into the cell.
-Large molecule must be converted into simpler,smaller molecules,which are
-soluble in water
-diffusible, small enough to pass through cell membranes
This process is known as difestion of food.
Brought about by the action of enzymes.

Digestive enzymes are
amylase---digest---->starch---form---->maltose
maltase----digest---->maltose---form---->glucose
proteases----digest---->proteins-----form---->amino acids

Enzymes either break down or build up complex substances
-many reaction in cells are catalysed by enzymes
Enzymes -catalysed reaction can be classified into:
-reactions that build up complex substances
-reaction that break down complex substances

Enzymes-catalysed reactions that build up substances
=build proteins from smino acids
Amino acids------>Polypetides------->protein
=building glycogen from glucose

Break down substances
-break down of glucose during respiration
-break down of poisonous substance like hydrogen peroxide to waste and oxygen
=The enzyme for this is catalase found in liver cells and blood.

Characteristic of enzymes
Enzyme speed up chemical reaction
-speed up a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy needed to start the reaction.

Enzymes are specific
-each chemical reaction inside a cell is catalysed by unique enzymes

Lock and Key
The substances on which enzymes acta re called substrates.
Starch is the substrate on which amylase acts.

Enzyme reaction depends on the presense of activity sites
Active sites are depression or 'pockets' on the surface of an enzyme molecule
The substrate molecules can fit into these packets,just like a lock and a key.
The substrate binds to the enzyme.
An enzyme substrate complex is formed.

Why does enzyme activity increase as temperature rises?
Enzymes and substrates molecules are moving and colliding with one another at random
Raising the temperature increases the movement of the molecules.
The substrate and enzyme molecule collide with each other more often.
This increases the chance of the substrates fitting into the active sites
Rate of formation of enzymes substrate complex increases
Enzyme activity only increases as the temperature increases up to the optinum temperature.

Why does enzyme activity decrease at high temperature?
Enzymes are made up of protein
The amino acid chains are coiled or folded to give the protein a 3D shape.
The coils are held in place by weak bonds.
When a protein is heated to a fairly high temperature(65%), the weak bonds within the protein are broken.
therefore the protein lose its 3D shape and active shape(denatured)

Extreme heat, boiling can cause the irreversible destruction of a protein.
Proteins are completely denatured above 60degree.
Acids and alkalis also cause protein denaturation by breaking the weak bonds within the proteins.
When an enzyme is denatured,it can no longer act as a catalyst.

Enzymes are affected by PH
-enzymes are affected by the acidity or alkalinity of the solutions in which they act.
-some enzymes work best in slightly acidic solution
eg.pepsin,rennin in the stomach
-other enzymes require slightly alkaline solution
eg.intestinal enzymes

__________________________end of chapter 6______________________

nutrition in humans

What is nutrition?
-the process of taking in food and converting it into living matter
Animals feed by taking in complex organic matter (solid or liquid).This process is known as holozoic nutrition.

Mouth is a special organ for nutrition
Gut is a special organ systen for nutrition.

In animals,nutrition consists of the following process
-feeding or ingestion=food is taken into the body
-digestion=large molecule of food are broken down into smaller soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the body cells.
-absorption=digested food substances are absorbed into the body cells.
-assimilation=some of the absorbed food substances are converted into new protoplasm or used to provide energy.

Gut is 9 metre long tube,is also known as the alimentary canal.

mamalian consist of the alimentary canal and glands associated with it.

Food enters the body through mouth,which lead to the buccal cavity.

Teeth-chewing breaks down food into smaller pieces. This increases surfaces area to volume ratio of the food so enzymes can act on it sufficiently.

Glands- a cell,a tissue,or an organ that secretes a chemical substance.

Pharynx
-Pharynx is part of the gut which connect the buccal cavity to the oesophagus and larynx or voice box.
-Food and air pass through it when they enter the body.
-Air passes into the trachea while the food passes through the oesophagus.
-A piece of flop like tissue called the epiglottis usually prevents food from going down the wrong way.

The wall of the oesophagus is made up of two layers of muscles.
These muscles are present along the gut from the oesophagus to the rectum.

Two layers of muscles
-The longtitudinal muscles on the outside of the gut
-the circuit muscles inside the gut.

The two layers of muscles causes rhythemic,wave like contractions of the gut walls
this movement is known as peristalsis.
Peristalsis allow the food to mix with the digestive juices,and also move the food along the gut.

Stomach is a muscular bay with thick muscular walls.
Its walls contain gastric glands which secrete digestive juice for digestion.

There is a ring of muscles called pyloric sphincter located where the stomach joins the small intestine.
Pyloric sphincter controls entry of food from the stomach into the intestine.

Small intestine consists of the U-shaped duodenum,jejunum and the much coiled iluem.

The lining of the walls of the small intestine contains glands which secrete digestive enzymes. The wall of the small intestine is to absorb digested food products and water.

The liver, gall bladder and pancreas are not part of the gut.

The liver
The ree blood vessels are attached to its lower surface
-hepatic artery=brings oxygenated blood to the liver
-hepatic vein=carries deoxygenated bloog away
-hepatic partal vein=transport digested products from the intestines to the liver.

The liver cells secrete bile
Bile does not contain enzymes
Bile is an alkaline greenish-yellowish fluid
contains bile pigment and bile salts
bile pigment give bile an alkaline greenish yellow fluid.
bile salts help to emulsify fats.

Gall bladder
bile is stored temporary in the gall bladder
-it is attached to the liver(greenish yellow bag)
-when it contracts,the bile flows into the duodenum vua the bile duct.

The pancreas
-is a gland attached to the duodenum
-connected to the duodenum by the pancreatic duct
-produces pancreatic juice
-contain three digestive enzymes
=pancreatic amylase
=proteases(trypsin)
=glucagon
insulin and glucagon is important as keeping contentration of glucose in the blood constant

The large intestine(1.5m)
-shorter but broader
-consist of
=colom
rectum(a short muscular tube)

At the junction between the colon and intestine are the caecum and the appendix.

Main functions of the colon is to sborb water and mineral salts from the undigested food-material
Digestion food does nt occur in the large intestine.

What is digestion?
Digestion involve two processes
-physical digestion
-chemical digestion

Physical digestion
-mechanical break-up of food into smaller particles
-increases the surface area to volume ratio of the ingested food,digestive enzymes can act on the food more efficiently.
it occur in
-mouth-chew your food by the action of the teenth and tongue
-stomach-continual contractions and relaxations of the muscles in the stomach wall cause a churning action
-break up food particles and mixes them with digestive enzymes

Chemical digestion
-breaking down of the large molecules in food.
Proteins,starch and fats, into small soluble molecules which can be absorbed.
involves hydrolytic reactions catalysed by digestive enzymes
*Hydrolysis is a reaction in which a water molecule is needed to break up a complex molecule into smaller molecules.

Processes that take place in the mouth
-Food in the mouth stimulates the saliavary glands to secrete saliva
-amylase digest starch to maltose
-salivary amylase is active at PH7
-chewing increases the surface to volume ratio for salivary amylase to work on.
-the tongue rolls the food into small,slippery,round masses or boli/bolus
-passes down the oesophagus via the pharynx

Digestive processes that take place in the stomach
-Food in the stomach stimulates the gastric glands to secrete gastric juice into the stomach cavity
-peristalsis in the stomach wall mixes the food well with gastric juice

Gastric juice contains:
-a proteases called pepsin which digests protein to polypeptide or peptone
-a proteases called rennin which clots or curdles milk proteins by converting the soluble protein caseinogen into insoluble casein
-this is neccessary because soluble milk protein would pass through the stomach to the duodenum as easily as water would not be digested by pepsin.
-insoluble casein remains long enough in the stomach to be digested by pepsin.
-Dilute Hydrochoric Acid(PH2)

Dilute hydrochloric acid:
-stops the action of salivary amylase by denaturing it.
-changes the inactive forms of the enzymes,pepsinogen and prorennin,in the gastric juice,to the active forms of pepsin and rennin respectively.
-provides a suitable acidic medium to pepsin to act
-kill a harmful microorganisms sch as bacteria in food

The partly digested food in the stomach called chyme
-chyme passes into the duodenum when the pyloric sphincter relaxes and open.

Digestive processes that take place in the small intestine
-chymes stimulates the released of these fluids into the duodenum
=the pancreas secrete pancreatic juice into the pancreatic duct
=the intestinal glands secrete intestinal juice
=the gall bladder releases bile into the bile duct
All are alkalines.Neutralise acid in the chyme.

Functions of pancreatic juice
pancreatic juice contains
-pancreatic amylase which digest starch to maltose
-trypsin which digest proteins to polypeptides.
Trypsin is produced as inactive trypsinogen and converted to the active trypsin by intestinal enterokinase.
-lipase which digests fats to fatty acids and glycerol.

Function of intestinal juice
intestinal juice contains:
-maltase which digest maltose to glucose
-enterokinase which converts inactive trypsinogen to active tryspsin.
-erepsin(a peptidase)which digest polypeptides to amino acids.
-lipase which digest fasts to fastty acids and glycerol.

Function of bile
-does nt contain enzymes
-emulsify fats
-lower the surface tension of the fats
=to reduce the attractive forces between the fat molecules causes the fats to break up into minute fat glubules suspended in the water to form an emulsion.
Physical brk up,no chemical digestion of fat molecules has occured.
-Emulsification increases the surface area to volume ratio of fats for digestion by lipase
(Read 84-85 textbk)

Absorption
Products of digestion as simple sugars,amino acids,fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed throughout the small intestine,-iluem.
Absorbed nutrients pass from the small intestine into the blood stream.
H2O is also absorbed in the small intestine.

How is the small intestine adapted for absorption?
Rate of absorption of digested food depends on:
-the surface area of the small intestine-how large the absorbing surface is.
-the membrane that separates the food substances from the blood capillaries-digested food substances take a shorter time to pass through a thin membrane than through a think one

The small intestine has the following adaptation for the absorption of digested food substances.
-the inner walls have numerous folds.increases the surface area for absorption
-the inner walls lines with numerous minute finger-like projection called villi;-further increase the surface area for absorption.
-the villi have thin walls or membrane (epithelium is only one cell thick)
-the small intestine is long to provide sufficient time for absorption
-richly supplied with blood capillaries and lymphatic cappilaries(lacteals)that carry away absorbed food substances.

How does absorption take place in the intestine?
-Glucose and amino acids are abosrbed by diffusion into the blood capillaries of the villi
-Glucose and amino acids are also abosorbed by active transport
This happens when there is a lower concentration of these digested food substances in the lumen of the small intestine than in the blood capillaries.
-Glycerol and fatty acids diffuse into the epithelium.Her they combine to form minute fat gobules which enter the lacteals
-water and mineral salts are absorbed by the small intestine and the colon.Most of the water is absorbed by the ileum.

What happens to undigested and unabsorbed matter?
-stored temporily in the rectum
removal of undigested matter from the body is called egestion.

How are absorbed food products used by the body?
Glucose:
is oxidised during respiration in the tissue cells,releases energy for cell activities.
excess glucose is converted to large molecule called glycogen that is stored in the liver and muscles.

Amino acids:
are assimilated in the tissue cells,that is,they converted into proteins and new protoplasm.
excess amino acids cannot be stored.they are deaminated in the liver.

How are fats transported and ultised?
fats:
are used to synthesise cell membranes.
excess fats are stored in fat cells(adipose tissue)
fats cells are found beneath the skin to insulate the skin against excessive heat loss
fat cell occuring around the heart and the kidneys protect these organs by acting as shock aborders.

Function of liver
-regulating the levels of certain substances in the body

Regulation of blood glucose concentration
-liver keep the amount of glucose in the blood constant
-normally consist of 70-90mg of glucose in every 100cmcube of blood
Glucose rise->stimulates the islets of langerhans in the pancreas->secrete insulin->stimulates the liver to convert the excess glucose into glycogen->stored
when body need glucose
obtain it from blood
The islets of langerhans in the pancreas are stimulated to secrete glucagon->stimulate the liver to convert glycogen to glucose

The storage and conversion of glycogen are controlled by the hormones insulin and glucagon.

Production of bile
liver also helps in digestion of fats by secreting bile.
-stored temporarily in the gall bladder before use.

Deamination of amino acids
-excess amino acids are brought to liver
-amino groups are removed and converted to urea(deamination)
urea remove from body in urine
-remains of the deaminated amino acids are converted into glucose in the liver
-excess glucose formed in this way is converted to glycogen

What if a person drink too muach alcohol?
Alcohol is broken down in the liver.Liver cells contain an enzyme called alcohol dehrdronase.which breaks down alcohol to a compound called acetaldehyde which will be broken down further to compounds that can be used in respiration to provide energy for cell activities.
However,excessive alcohol consumption can have harmful effects.Prolonged alohol abuse may lead to corrhosis of the liver,a disease in which the liver cells will be destroyed and replaced by fibrous tissues,making the liver less able to function.Patients with cirrhosis may haemorrhage or have bleeding in liver,lead to liver failure.

________________________end of chapter 6_________________________

Nutrients in plant
A living organism need sufficient energy to live.
Enrgy is obtained from breaking down energy-rich organic molecules in food.
Humans get all their organic molecules,directly or in directly from plants.

Where could plants obtain carbon and energy from?
all life on earth ultimately depends on photosynthesis.

Basic knowledge
1.simplest energy-rich organic molecules are carbohydrates
simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides
If photosynthesis has taken place,glucose must first be formed from carbon dioxide.
2.If glucose is formed more quickly than it is used up,excess glucose is change to starch for storage.

Plants need CO2. Sodalime and potassium hydroxide are used to absorbs and removes CO2.

What happen during photosynthesis?
1.light-dependant stage:
Light energy--chlorophyll-->chemical energy.
-light energy used to split water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen atoms(photolysis of water)
2.light-independant stage:
chemical energy and hydrogen atoms from the light stage are used to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.
since light is not require,we call it the dark stage.
-enzymes play a part in the dark stage.

Photosynthesis is the process in which light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is transfromed into chemical energy.The chemical energy is used to synthesise carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide. water and carbon dioxide are raw materials for photosynthesis.oxygen is releases during this process.

Light energy is transform and stored in carbohydrates molecules
Glucose is the first stable form of carbohydrates formed in photosynthesis that the plant can use.

equation for photosynthesis
carbon dioxide +water--light energy chlorophyll-->glucose+oxygen gas+water

limting factors in photosynthesis
-light intensity
-concentration of carbon dioxide
-temperature

What happens to glucose that is formed during photosynthesis?
1.in photosynthesis,carbon dioxide and water form glucose in green leaves
2.glucose is first broken down by the cells during tissue reproduction to provide energy for cellular activities.
3.glucose is used to make cellulose cell walls
4.fats are also formed from glucose in the leaves.Fats may be used in cellular respiration or for forming new protoplasm.
5.glucose can react with nitrates brought to the leaf to form amino acids,which are used to build protoplasm.Excess amino acids formed from glucose may be translocated away from leaves.
6. excess glucose may be converted into sucrose and translocated away from phloem.

During the day,the rate of photosynthesis is so great that sugars are formed faster than they can be removed.Glucose in leaf is converted into starch for temprary storage in the ;eaf.
at noght,photosynthesis stops and the starch is reconverted by enzymes in the leaft into glucose.

External features of a leaf
A typical green leaf consists of the leaf blade(lamina) and the leaft stalk(petiole)

Network of veins
-carry water and mineral salts to the cells in the lamina and carry manufactured food from these cells to other parts of the plant.

Lamina
-has a large flat surface compared to its volume
-enables it to obtain the maximum amount of sunlight
-a large,thin lamina also means that carbon dioxide can rapidly reach the inner cells of the leaf.

Petiole
-holds the lamina away from the stem so that the lamina obtain sufficient sunlight and air.

internal structure of the lamina

1.upper epidermis
-single layer of closely packed cells without chloroplasts
-covered in the outside by a waxy surface called cuticle
cuticle protect the enclosed leaf tissue and prevents excessive evaporation of water

2.mesophyll
-a region between the upper epidermia and lower epidermis
-contains chloroplasts.
2.1)Palisade mesophyll
-cells are elongated and closely packerd
-contains more chlorophyll than anywhere else in th leaf
2.2)spongy mesophyll
-cells are irregular shape
-numerous large intercellular air spaces among them to allow for rapid diffusion of gases through the leaf.
-contain fewer chloroplastsm, but carry out photosynthesis.
All mesophyll cells are covered with a film of moisture so that carbon dioxide can dissolve in it.

3.lower epidermis
-beneath the mesophyll
-similar to upper epidermis
-curticle is thinner
curticle reduces water losee through epidermal cells

4.stoma(singular)
-lower epidermis contains many tiny openings called stomata
-stomata are important in gaseous exchange
-each stoma is enclosed by two guard cells.
=guard cells are bean shaped in surface view,while the epidermis cells are irrular in shape.
=guard cells contain chloroplasts,while the epidermal cells do not.

5.veins of vascular bundles
-contains xylem and phloem
-xylem transports water and material salts from the root up to the leaves
-phloem tranlocates sucrose and amino acods from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

Stomata generally open i n the light
Guard cells are the only epidermal cell that can make glucose
chloroplasts in the guard cells photosynthesis.
Light energy is onverted into chemical energy to pump potassium ion into the guard cells from the neighbouring epidermal cells.This lower the water potential in the guard cells.water will then enter the guard cell through osmosis.
Guard call become turgid and swell
swollen guard cells become more curved and pull the stoma open.\

At night
the accumulated in the guard cells during the day potassium ions diffuse out of the guard cells. this increases the water potential in the guard cells and water leaves them by osomis.

Guard cells
-regulate the rate of diffusion of gases into and out of the leaf.
-regulate the amount of carbon dioxide diffusing into the leaf.

At night, carbon dioxide produced during respiration is stored in the air spaces in the leaf
in bright daylight,rate of photosynthesis is faster than rate of respiration.
carbon dioxide is rapidly used up,its concentration in the leaf is lower than the atmostphere
so atmospheric carbon dioxide diffuse through the stomata into the intercellular air spaced in the leaf.

Petiole -hold leafs in position to absorb maximum light energy

thin flat lamina -allow maximum absorption of light energy
allow carbon dioxide to reach inner cells rapidly
enables sunlight to reach all mesophyll

waxy cuticle -reduce water loss through evaporation and lower epidermis

stomata present in -open in sunlight,allowing carbon dioxide to
the epidermal layers to diffuse out of the leaf.

chloroplasts containing - chlorophyll absorbs and transforms light energy
chlorophyll in all mesophyll used in the manufacture of the sugar.

more chloroplast in the - more high energy can be abosorbed near the leaf surface
upper palisade tissue

inter-connecting system
of air spaces in spongy -allows rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide into mesophyll cells
mesophyll

veins containing xylem -xylem transport water and mineral salts to mesophyll cells
and phloem phloem transport sugar away from the leaf.

_______________________end of chapter 7__________________________

Transport in humans(121-131)
Mammals have developed a transport system in their bodies consisting of:
-a series of blood vessels that run through the entire body
-fluid,which flows through the vessels,carrying materials around the body
-a heart(muscular pump) which ensures that the fluid keeps flowing through the vessels

structure composition of blood.
-nucleus is absence in mamalian red blood cells

Blood is not just a liquid
it consists of a fluid that has different types of cells suspended in it
the presence of these cells accounts for blood being called a fluid tissue
55% of the volume of blood is made of plasma
45% is made up of blood cells(corpuscles)and platelets

Plasma
-pale yellowish liquid
-90%water,rest is complex mixture of various dissolved substances
such as soluble protein
-fribinogen
-prothrombin
-antibodies
fribinogen and prothrombin play an important role in the clotting of blood

Dissolved mineral salts
-hydrogen carbonates
-chlorides
-sulphates
-phosphates of calcium
-sodium
-potassium
All these occur as ions in the plasma
Calcium is essential for blood clotting

Food substances
-glucose
-amino acids
-fats
-vitamins

Excretory products
-nitrogenous waste products
=urea
=uric acid
=creatinine
Carbon dioxide is present as hydrogen carbonate ions

Hormones
-insulin

Plasma transport all these substances with the blood cells
Amount of soluble proteins,mineral salts and glucose in the blood plasma are kept relatively constant.

Red blood cell
-5 million red blood cells in each cubic millimetre of blood
-transport oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body
-produced by bone marrow
-lifespan 3-4 mths

bone marrow produced red blood cell
the spleen destroys worn out red blood cell
release haemoglobin
bile pigment(excretes into the gut in bile
broken down in liver
iron released
(stored in liver)

white blood cells
-larger than red blood cells
-fewer in number
1 white=700 red(blood cell)
colourless and does not contain haemoglobin
-irregular shape and contains a nucleus
-can move,change shape,squeeze through the walls of the thinnest blood capillaries into the spaces among tissue cells

These are two kinds of white blood cell
-lymbocytes
-phagocytes

Lymbocytes has a large,rounded nucleus and very little cytoplasm
Phagocytes has a blood nucleus
white blood cell protect the body against disease-causing organiam

blood platelets or thrombocytes
-are nt true cell
-are membrane-bound fragment of cytoplasm from certain bone marrow cells
-play a part in the clotting of blood

function of blood
-act as a transport medium carrying various substances from one part of the body to another
-protects the body against disease causing organisms(phythogens)
-blood clotting at wounds prevents excessive loss of blood
*seal wounds,preventing the entry of bacteria into the blood stream

Transport function of blood
blood transport:
-digested food substances from blood capillaries in the small intestine to all parts of the body
-excretory products from the tissue to the respective excretory organs for removal
-nitrogenous waste materials(urea,uric acid,creatinine) are mostly removes as blood flows through the kidneys
-carbon dioxide from the cells enters the blood and is carried as hydroegn carbonate ions in the blood plasma.blood passes through the lungs,the hydrogencarbonate ions are converted to cardon dioxide which then diffuses into the air sac.
-hormones from the glands which produce them to parts of the body which require them.
-heat produced in respiring body tissue,especially the muscles and liver.Blood distributes heat throughout the body to maintain the body temperature.
-oxygen combine withe haemoglobin in the red blood cells from the lungs to all parts of the body.

How does blood transport oxygen to the cells of the body?
1.blood posses through the lungs,oxygen diffuse from the alveoli into the blood
2.haemoglobin combined with oxygen to form an unstable compound called oxyhaemoglobin,which give blood its red colour
blood then transport oxyhaemoglobin to all the tissues of the body
as blood passes through tissues that need oxygen,it will release and oxygen will diffuse into the tissue cells

The body produced more red blood cells to compensate for the lower concentration of oxygen is called acclimatisation.

The prtotective function of blood
-blood clotting
-phacocytosis
-antibody production

Clotting or coagulation of blood
-clots seals the wound,prevent excessive loss of blood
-prevents foreign particles from entering the blood stream

How does blood clots?
-damaged tissue and blood platelets release an enzyme called thrombokinase
-thrombokinase converts proteins prothrombin in the blood plasma into thrombin.calcium ions must be present.
-enzymes thrombin catalyses the conversion of the soluble protein fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin threads
-fribin threads form a mesh to trap blood cells and the whole mass formed the clot.

Undamaged blood vessel, blood do not clot
due to presense of an anti-clotting substance(heparin)
heparin produce in liver
thrombokinase released neutrolised herapin
when blood blots,it left behind a yellowish liquid called serum.

phagocytosis
phagocytes(white blood cell) can ingest and destroy foreign particles that enter the blood.
dead phagocytes,together with dead bacteria form pus.

Production of anti bodies
diseases-causing organisms(pathogen) enter into the blood stream, stimulate lympocytes to produce antibodies which:
-destroying the bacteria by attaching to them,causing the bacterial surface membrane to rupture
-causing bacteria to agglutinate or clump together so that they can be easily ingest by phagocytes.
-neautralise harmful substances(toxin)
-attaching to viruses,making them unable to bind to the nose cell

Organ transplant
-recepient's lymbocytes may respond by producing antibodies to destroy the transplanted oxygen

________________________end of 121-131 chapter 8___________________

Due to tiredness i just read through chapter 9..
i hope tat God can help me..becoz i help myself le..
today chem was tough

Labels: bio notessss..arghh..revision done

i blogged @ 4:47 AM

firstly i wanna Thx God..for answering my prayer..hehex..

EL paper was ok
Maths lost 10 marks, quite ok

tmr chem
many things to remember
equations
hw to balanced it
acid base and salt
soluble salt
insouble salt
metal reactivity
RMM
arghh..
God u got to help me
shower me with wisdom knowledge and give me good memories so i can remember everything.

i have manage to remember most of the stuff..
tmr morning juz run through and leave my fate to God and that i will have faith in him..

tahan another 4 papers
2 more days
jiu end le...

i blogged @ 8:29 AM

went church tis morning
then tuition hehex..

reach hm abt 2
slept till 5

msg gary hahaz..thx worr..u motivated me to do my work thx..


THANKS GARYGOH FROM ACS(BR)
hahaz..



















i blogged @ 8:15 AM

went to town tis morning and then to spca
went bak aunt hse study my bio whoohoo
left 20 more pages
tmr complete
then chem tmr complete
hmm..
God must help me kkz..


siian lor today
damn freaking tired
haiiz..
stresssssss
=no appetite
hahaz..
bt i got eat kkz..
hahaz..
being contradicting abit,
i no appetite bt i am damn hungry

going bangkok
at the end of the month...

hahaz..

i blogged @ 6:19 AM

everyweek got ppl let me scold de
juz nw blogg forget to scold tis

althouugh u tis auntie will nvr get to see my blog bt tis is wad i wan to tell u
to tat auntie in bus 88 who diaoz me and shake ur head
i only eat ice cream mah..i gt dirty the place meh..shake ur head for wad..
dare jiu scold me la..
idiot siia kip staring at me..
wad the hell la..
really feel like taking out ur eyeball la

i blogged @ 10:04 AM

first i wan start off by thanking GOD.
HE IS SO GREAT, HE ANSWERED MY PRAYERS.
GIVING ME MORE CONFIDENCE TO DO ALL MY EXAMS.
HE GAVE ME STRENGTH TO PULL THROUGH MY POA PAPERS.
I BELIEVE TAT AS LONG AS YOU HAVE HELPED URSELF HE USUALLY HELP U
THX GOD..ILOVEYOU..

secondly,
lit paper i cannot make it..
POA paper was great quite ok to me hahaz..
first time cn complete TPL accont without any prob hahaz...

tmr chiong bio
sunday chiong maths whoohooo..
then i will see..

sunday gt church..yea..whoohoo
PLMC..hahaz..maybe tis is where i belong nt y hope..i guess..

it has been a long time since i go to y hope..
i want to go
bt whenever i wan go,
i suddenly have no feeling to go after tat..
haiiiz..
maybe after exam bahh..
don wish to stay out late at nites..
sry yicong..

choosing between y hope and plmc



siiannnnnnnnnnnnnnnn
haiiz..
left wif
POA1
MATHS2
EL2
CHEM BIO
DNT

monday
-EL AND MATHS
tuesday
-CHEM
wednesday
-BIO AND POA
thursday
-DNT

have been addicted to books recently
hahaz..

i blogged @ 4:16 AM

tmr POA....

TRADING PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED...
__________________________________________________________
STOCK
PURCHASES
ADD CARRIAGE INWARD
LESS RETURN OUTWARDS
COST OF PURCHASE
COST OF GOOD FOR SALES___________STOCK+ PURCHASES
LESS STOCK
COST OF GOODS SOLD
GROSS PROFIT C/D
_____________________LEFT SIDE____________________________
SALES
LESS RETURN INWARD
_____________________RIGHT SIDE___________________________
CARRIAGE OUTWARD
OTHER EXPENSES
NET PROFIT=GROSS PROFIT- EXPENSES
_____________________LEFT DOWN___________________________
GROSS PROFIT B/D
DISCOUNT RECEIVED
____________________RIGHT DOWN___________________________

_____________________END OF TPL______________________________

BALANCE SHEET
_____________________________________________________________
ASSET

FIXED ASSET
CURRENT ASSET
___________________LEFT SIDE__________________________________

LIABILITIES

OWNER EQUITY
CAPITAL
NET PROFIT
LESS DRAWING

LONG TERM LIABILITIES
CURRENT LIBILITIES
__________________RIGHT SIDE__________________________________

TRAIL BALANCE AS AT......
_____________________________________________________________
CAPITAL
CREDITORS
SALES
RETURNS OUTWARDS
INTEREST INCOME
LOANS
BANK AND OVER DRAFT
___________________CREDIT SIDE________________________________
DRAWINGS
STOCK,---------
OFFICE EQUIPMENT
DEBTORS
PURCHASES
RETURN INWARDS
CARRIAGE INWARDS
CARRIAGE OUTWARDS
CASH AT BANK
___________________DEBIT SIDE_________________________________

hahazz..
bored and memorising..haha...
went to sch as usual ended at 8.45am
headed to friend hse
slack till 11.45
then to eileen hse
slack awhile went to tpy ate glutinous rice and rojak
then back
eileen cook maggi noodle
then eat le went in rm
i went to slp till 3.45pm
woke up and study awhile
and headed to bball court
then hm at 7++
tats all

i blogged @ 7:42 AM

i don noe wad to blog seriously

bt wan end off wif

HAPPY HARI RAYA
n
HAPPY CHILDREN DAY


i blogged @ 8:23 AM

jennifer
moix private blog
joey(jerry's gf)
jerry
nicholas
yicong:)shepherd
johnathan:)beloved didixXD
zachary
carina
iris
link
link
link


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images: 1 2
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Adobe Photoshop

August 2008
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January 2009

tagboard here. as i mention..kindly don spam me..
hate me juz go..don need tok so much

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